I didn't think you could boot from USB either but I suspect 'received wisdom' rather than fact is involved. Thearticle above seem to suggest that it's because the firewire ports become live through open firmware while the USB ones don't until later in the boot process.
Although it doesn't help you, cygni, the lesson for others is always to test booting from your new clone before you erase your current HD.
Apple seem to suggest that it might work but isn't expected to work
Link
Can you boot from your OS X restore/install disk and then access the data on your USB drive? It might not help with the booting issue but it might help.
If your drive isn't too big and you have a large iPod, you may be able to copy the structure on the USB drive over to a partition on the iPod and then boot from that if it's Firewire?