Clicking that Remove button.
It doesn't come back immediately.. if I check back a few days later, it will be there.
I think we were conversing on another thread about the Iphone conif tool. Have you looked at your phone using that util to see if there is a profile on it?
Have you tried removing it from the Provisioning tab in iTunes?
From the screenshot it looks like the remove tab is grayed out. It would be interesting to see what the Provisioning Profile option in the left column shows. I would like to see if this profile is password protected.
Try what thelatinist said.