Have you messed with your system's fonts?
My memory is decidedly hazy but I recall this happened to me when I installed the San Francisco font family. When I removed them everything returned to normal.
I believe the system dialog boxes are using the Lucida Grande font. Maybe it's corrupted on your system. The easiest thing to do would be to located them on a functioning system and copy them over. LucidaGrande.ttc appears to be in /System/Library/Fonts on Mojave.
Also, you might try logging in as a different user. If the dialog boxes display correctly, then there is something problematic with the fonts in your regular login account, ~/Library/Fonts.
Make sure there isn't a second copy of Lucida Grande in your user account's font folder.
Best of luck.